Aaron, Hank
Hall-of-Fame baseball player, most famous for breaking Babe Ruth's long-time record for career home runs. Aside from his 755 career home runs (which remains the record to this day) Aaron also amassed over 3,000 hits and holds the record for most career RBI's with 2,297. He was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1982. Today, he is an executive with the Atlanta Braves baseball team.
Affirmative Action
Policies first enacted under President Lyndon Johnson's administration to remedy the effects of widespread discrimination against marginalized groups in the United States. Affirmative action programs were designed to increase opportunities for minorities and women in employment, education and business ownership.
AFRI-COBRA
An acronym for African Commune of Bad Relevant Artists, this organization was founded in 1968 by a groups of artists in Chicago. The group utilized Black Art as a medium to promote political and functional growth of Africanized thought throughout the world, taught classes and spoke out against apartheid in South Africa.
African Methodist Episcopal Church
Founded in 1816 by Richard Allen, Daniel Payne, William Paul Quinn and Henry Turner, the African Methodist Episcopal Church (A.M.E. Church), is the result of segregation within churches in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. After seeing that Methodist and Episcopalian alike were being subjected to humiliation and segregation at their holiest of places, the Free African Society was founded. From this group, five churches joined together to form the fledgeling A.M.E. Church on April 9, 1816. Today, the church has congregations across the United States, in Canada, the Caribbean, in several African nations and the United Kingdom.
Africanist
A specialist in African affairs, cultures, or languages.
Afro-Academic Cultural Technological and Scientific Olympics
Afro-Academic, Cultural, Technological and Scientific Olympics (ACT-SO) is an outreach program founded in 1978 by commentator, journalist and NAACP activist Vernon Jarrett. The ACT-SO program promotes educational excellence by encouraging African American high school students to participate in academic competitions for scholarships, awards, and other prizes.
Afro-American Newspaper
Founded in 1892 by former slave John H. Murphy, Sr. after merging his church publication, The Sunday School Helper with two other church publications, The Ledger (owned by George F. Bragg of Baltimore's St. James Episcopal Church) and The Afro-American (published by Reverend William M. Alexander, pastor of Baltimore's Sharon Baptist Church). By 1922, the Afro was the most widely circulated black newspaper on the East Coast. Murphy's son Carl Murphy took over the paper and served as editor for forty-five years until his death, when daughter Frances Murphy II took over. Today, fourth generation Murphy family members Jake Oliver and Frances Murphy Draper are actively involved in the paper.
AIDS
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. The disease that results from the sexually transmitted disease, HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). A serious (often fatal) disease of the immune system transmitted through blood products especially by sexual contact or contaminated needles.
Alabama
Accepted into the United States in 1814 as the 22nd state. Alabama lies in the Southeastern part of the country bordered by Tennessee to the north, Mississippi and Georgia to the west and east respectively, and Florida to the south. The state has been the site of many important historical events, particularly in African American history. In the 19th century, the state's capital, Montgomery, became the first capital of the Confederacy. In the 20th century Alabama was one of the major Civil Rights battlegrounds. It was the site of the Montgomery bus boycott, led by Dr. Martin Luther King, the Selma-Montgomery March, and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee's Freedom Rides.
Ali, Muhammad
Boxer considered to be the best in the world, Ali was born Cassius Clay and changed his name following his conversion to Islam in 1964. During his career, he won Olympic gold and was a three-time heavyweight champion of the world. He was also convicted of dodging the draft during the Vietam War, a conviction the United States Supreme Court later overturned on the grounds of his status as a minister for the Nation of Islam. During his career, Ali won fifty-six fights, thirty-seven of which were by knockout. His travels and vibrant personality have made him a goodwill ambassador for the United States.
American Culinary Federation, Inc.
North American professional chef organization with more than 240 chapters nationwide and 19,000 members. The organization's mission statement is to make a positive difference for culinarians through education, apprenticeship and certification, while creating a fraternal bond of respect and integrity among culinarians everywhere.
America's Black Forum
Nationally syndicated news/interview show. For 20 years, the weekly program has been discussing topics of special interest to African Americans.
Anderson, Marian
The first African American to perform with the prestigious Metropolitan Opera, famed vocalist Marian Anderson was hailed as the greatest contralto of her time. Anderson's extraordinary career spanned the years from the early 1920s through the 1970s. She became a symbol of progress early in the civil rights era when the Daughters of the American Revolution refused to allow Anderson to perform at Constitution Hall in Washington, D.C. First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt resigned from the DAR in protest and arranged for Anderson to sing on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. Over 75,000 people attended. Recipient of numerous awards, Anderson was bestowed the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963. She died in 1993 at the age of ninety-one.
Angelou, Maya
Author, poet, actor, and film director Maya Angelou is hailed as one of the great voices of contemporary literature. She has published ten best selling books and numerous essays, earning her Pulitzer Prize and National Book Award nominations. At the request of President Clinton, Angelou wrote and delivered the poem "On The Pulse of Morning" at his 1993 presidential inauguration. Her screenplay Georgia was the first by an African American woman to be filmed.
Apollo Theater
Famed club in the heart of New York City, the Apollo has launched the careers of legendary artists like Ella Fitzgerald, James Brown, Michael Jackson, D'Angelo and Lauryn Hill during its famed "Amateur Nights." The club is now a federal, state and city landmark, and produces a weekly television show, Showtime at the Apollo.
Argonne National Laboratory
The U.S. Department of Energy's largest research centers. It is also the nation's first national laboratory, chartered in 1946. Argonne is a direct descendant of the University of Chicago's Metallurgical Laboratory, part of the World War Two Manhattan Project. It was at the Met Lab where, on December 2, 1942, Enrico Fermi and his band of about fifty colleagues created the world's first controlled nuclear chain reaction in a squash court at the University of Chicago. After the war, Argonne was given the mission of developing nuclear reactors for peaceful purposes. Over the years, Argonne's research expanded to include many other areas of science, engineering and technology. Today, Argonne operates on two campuses, one outside of Chicago, the other in Idaho, where most of the current nuclear research is performed.
Arkansas
The twenty-fifth state to join the Union, Arkansas was accepted as a state in 1836. It will secede from the Union in 1861 to join the Confederate cause. It was readmitted to the Union in 1868. Former President Bill Clinton hailed from this state.
Armstrong, Louis
Born in a poor New Orleans neighborhood in 1901, Louis Armstrong, otherwise known as "Satchmo," was known world-wide for his skills as a jazz trumpeter and singer. Armstrong would also perform in films throughout his career and was an extensive writer. His career took him around the globe as a performer, performing to sold out audiences wherever he would play. He passed away in 1971.
Ashe, Arthur
Tennis player and writer Arthur Ashe was born in Richmond, Virginia in 1943. A world-class player, Ashe was the first African American ever to win the US championship (1968), the Davis Cup (1968 - 1970), the Australian Open (1970), and Wimbledon (1975). Also a passionate civil rights activist, in 1973 Arthur Ashe became the first African American professional tennis player to play during the South African apartheid regime. His presence there helped call international attention to that human rights injustice. He retired from competition in 1979 and wrote a three-volume history of African American athletes entitled A Hard Road to Glory, published in 1988. Ashe passed away in 1993.
Associated Negro Press
Established in 1919 by entrepreneur and journalist Claude Barnett, the Associated Negro Press was a consolidated news service that provided international news items and press releases to African American newspapers throughout the United States.
Atlanta, Georgia
Capital city of Georgia and the fastest growing metropolitan area in the entire U.S. Atlanta was founded in 1837, and though it thrived initially it was nearly destroyed by Union General Sherman, during the infamous "Sherman's March." It is the birthplace of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and has long been a locus for African American culture. Today, the city has a population of over 400,000 and is home to several major American corporations including Coca-Cola and CNN.
Attorney General
The chief government lawyer (at either the state or federal level). The Attorney General is responsible for the activities of all state and district attorneys, and oversees all cases—criminal and civil—brought by the government.
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Baker, Josephine
Overcoming the limitations imposed by the color of her skin, Josephine Baker became one of the world's most versatile entertainers, performing on stage, screeen and recordings. Josephine was decorated for her undercover work for the French Resistance during World War II and later worked as a civil rights activist. Her performance in the Folies Bergere in Paris, France, is considered to represent the epitome of the flamboyance of the Jazz Age. She also refused to perform for segregated audiences and integrated the Las Vegas nightclubs. During the course of her life, she adopted twelve children from around the world whom she called her "Rainbow Tribe." She passed away in 1975.
Baldwin, James
Born in 1924, Balwin catapulted to fame with the publication of his first novel, Go Tell It On the Mountain. Over the years, he continued to write, including collections of essays entitled Notes of a Native Son and Nobody Knows My Name. He also wrote the novels Giovanni's Room and Another Country. Throughout his life he continued to write, and his works included productions for the stage and poetry. He died in his home in France in 1987.
Bangladesh
Bangladesh came into existence in 1971 when Bengali East Pakistan seceded from its union with West Pakistan. About a third of this extremely poor country floods annually during the monsoon rainy season, hampering economic development. Many of the citizens of this poor country are landless and forced to cultivate the flood-prone lands.
Baraka, Amiri
Writer and activist Amiri Baraka was born LeRoi Jones in Newark, New Jersey in 1934. Jones' early career began in New York City's Greenwich Village, where he published a collection of poems and edited several literary journals. He achieved international acclaim for his two dramas Dutchman, winner of the coveted Obie Award, and The Slave. He became a Muslim and changed his name in 1967 to Imamu Amiri Baraka and continues to publish short stories, poetry, and essays.
Barbados
When first settled by the British in 1627, the island of Barbados was uninhabited. The British brought in slaves to work sugar plantations, which continued until slavery was abolished in 1834. The economy remained heavily dependent on sugar, rum, and molasses production through most of the 20th century. The gradual introduction of social and political reforms in the 1940s and 1950s led to complete independence from the UK in 1966. In the 1990s, tourism and manufacturing surpassed the sugar industry in economic importance.
Barnett, Claude
A prominent African American journalist and entrepreneur, Claude Barnett established the Associated Negro Press in 1919. Under the direction of Barnett, the ANP became the largest black press service in the United States for over 40 years. Barnett also served as special assistant to the U.S. Secretary of Agriculture, was a board member of the Tuskegee Institute, American National Red Cross, and Provident Hospital. He died in 1967.
Belgium
Situated on the North Sea between France and the Netherlands, Belgium became independent from the Netherlands in 1830 and was occupied by Germany during World Wars I and II. It has prospered in the past half century as a modern, technologically advanced European state and member of NATO and the EU.
Bell, Cool Papa
Called "the fastest man to ever play the game of baseball," Cool Papa Bell was one of the stars of the Negro Baseball League during the 1930s and 1940s. Bell batted an astonishing .341 during his 25 years in the Negro Leagues, and once stole 175 bases in less than 200 games. His speed was legendary, and it was said that he could turn off the light and get into bed before the room got dark. He was inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1974.
Bethune, Mary McLeod
Born to former slaves in 1875, Bethune went on to found the Daytona Normal and Industrial Institute for Negro Girls (now Bethune-Cookman College) in 1904, and served as president from 1904-1942 and from 1946-47. She was a leader in the black women's club movement and served as president of the National Association of Colored Women. She also served as a delegate and advisor to national conferences on education, child welfare, and home ownership, and was director of Negro Affairs in the the National Youth Adminstration from 1936 to 1944. Bethune served as consultant to the U.S. Secretary of War for selection of the first female officer candidates. 0">President Truman appointed her to be a consultant on interracial affairs and understanding at the charter conference of the United Nations, as well. She also founded the National Council of Negro Women and was the vice-president of the NAACP. Her work also merited her many awards, both nationally and internationally. She passed away in 1955.
Better Boys Foundation
Chicago-based non profit social service organization.
Billboard Magazine
Music-industry trade publication, the journal's most famous feature is the Billboard Chart, which tracks which singles received the most radio airplay for a given week.
Birmingham, Alabama
City in Alabama founded in 1871 at the crossing of two railroad lines. In the 1960s Birmingham was the site of some of the fiercest civil rights battles in the United States. Birmingham gained worldwide attention in May 1963, when images of Civil Rights protesters attacked by dogs and sprayed by fire hoses were featured in the nation's newspapers. In the fall of the same year, a bomb exploded in 16th Street Baptist Church killing four black girls. Dr. Martin Luther King composed his famous "Letter From a Birmingham Jail" in one of the city's holding cells.
Black Arts Movement
During the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, a loose coalition of African American intellectuals who produced politically and artistically radical poems aimed at raising awareness of black rights and promoting the struggle for racial equality. The lasting influence of the Black Arts Movement is found in institutions, such as African American Studies departments (and the field of African American Studies itself) as well as African American-oriented publishers, academic book series, art galleries, and theaters, which would not have existed without the explosion of African American nationalist artistic activity during this time.
Black Belt
An area of Chicago that ran from 12th Street south to 39th Street, centered around State Street, a major north-south thoroughfair. As the African American community grew, the "Black Belt" expanded to the south and east. The area is now known as Bronzeville.
Black Enterprise Magazine
First published in 1970 by African American publisher Earl Graves, the monthly Black Enterprise Magazine has since become a primary source of information on the African American business community as well as a forum for profiles of successful entrepreneurs.
Black Entertainment Television
The nation's first black-owned cable channel, started in 1980 by entrepreneur Robert L. Johnson. In the past several years, BET has become a multimedia conglomerate. Viacom purchased BET in 2000.
Black Panther Party
Founded in Oakland, California in 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale, the Black Panther Party was a progressive political organization. The Panthers focused on ending police brutality, providing better education, ensuring equal protection under the law and fair housing in African American communities. Once comprised of over 5,000 members, unrelenting pressure from the FBI and internal struggles eroded the organization's power by the end of the 1970s.
Blues
Distinctly American musical genre, the folk musical style originated among African Americans in the rural South at the end of the 19th century. Due to its simplicity and flexibility, blues music has served as the foundation for nearly every new Western musical genre of the 20th century, including jazz, rock and popular music. A standard blues progression is played in a major scale and moves between the first, fourth and fifth chords of the scale. Often the lyrics refer to hardship and despair, but ultimately the purpose of the blues is cathartic: one plays the blues to rid oneself of the blues.
Botswana
Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name upon independence in 1966. Four decades of uninterrupted civilian leadership, progressive social policies, and significant capital investment have created one of the most dynamic economies in Africa. Botswana has the world's highest known rate of HIV/AIDS infection, but also one of Africa's most progressive and comprehensive programs for dealing with the disease.
Boycott
A group's refusal to engage in commercial dealings with an organization in protest of their policies. Boycotts were used extensively during the Civil Rights Movement by African Americans seeking to challenge Jim Crow and other segregation laws.
Boys and Girls Club of Chicago
A one-hundred-year-old social service agency, with service sites in many of Chicago's most blighted communities. The agency offers services such as day care, tutoring and after-school programming to children living in underserved neighborhoods.
Bradley,Tom
First African American Mayor of the City of Los Angeles, he served five terms. Bradley is best known for forging lasting coalitions across racial and ethnic lines.
Brazil
Following three centuries under the rule of Portugal, Brazil became an independent nation in 1822. By far the largest and most populous country in South America, Brazil has overcome more than half a century of military intervention in the governance of the country to pursue industrial and agricultural growth and development of the interior. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool, Brazil is today South America's leading economic power and a regional leader. Prior to the outlawing of slavery there, Brazil was the largest importer of African slaves in the Western Hemisphere.
brigadier general
The lowest rank of general officer in the United States (sometimes known as a one-star general from the United States insignia) and other countries, ranking just above Colonel and just below Major General.
Bronzeville
A largely African American area of Chicago, Illinois, Bronzeville was the cultural and economic center of the black community during the segregation era. Similar to New York's Harlem district, Bronzeville was nationally known during the postwar years for the "Stroll", an urban strip bustling with jazz cabarets and blues clubs that featuring artists such as Muddy Waters and Jelly Roll Morton.
Brooks, Gwendolyn
Poet and writer Gwendolyn Brooks was the first African American woman to win the Pulitzer Prize. Her many publications include Selected Poems (1963), In the Mecca (1968), Family Pictures (1970), and Children Coming Home (1992). In 1968, Brooks succeeded Carl Sandburg as poet laureate of Illinois. She died December 3, 2000.
Brown v. Board of Education
Landmark Supreme Court case decision, handed down on May 14, 1954, which abolished the practice of "separate but equal" facilities which had been held up by the Plessy v. Ferguson decision in 1896.
Brown, Ron
Army veteran, lawyer and the highest-ranking African American in President Clinton's cabinet, Ronald Brown served with the US Army (1962-6) before earning a law degree at St. John's University (1970). While working for the New York chapter of the National Urban League (NUL), he was elected to the post of District Leader for the Democratic Party and then as Chairman of the Democratic National Committee. President Clinton appointed Brown to the office of Secretary of Commerce in 1993. Three years later he was killed in an airplane crash on a trade mission in Croatia.
Buffalo Soldiers
The United States Army's 92nd Infantry Division. The 92nd was the only African-American infantry division to see combat in Europe in World War II. Nicknamed "Buffalo Soldiers," the 92nd, which had fought in France during World War I, was once again activated in 1942. More than 909,000 African Americans were selected for duty in the racially segregated U.S. Army during World War II. The vast majority of African Americans in uniform were assigned to segregated construction or supply units or placed in units that performed unpleasant duties such as graves registration. The 92nd continued a long and proud tradition by retaining the buffalo as its divisional symbol. Its circular shoulder patch, which featured a black buffalo on an olive drab background, was called The Buffalo--as was the division's official publication. The 92nd even kept a live buffalo as a mascot.
Burrell Communication Group
The nation's largest African American-owned marketing firm. Founded by Tom Burrell, the firm boasts such clients as McDonalds and CocaCola. Burrell Communications Group is divided into three divisions: Burrell Advertising, Burrell Public Relations, and Burrell Consumer Promotions.
Bush, George H. W.
The 41st President of the United States. George H.W. Bush served from 1989 to 1993, and during his presidency the Cold War finally came to an end. Despite military victories in Panama and the Persian Gulf, a falling economy hurt his presidency, and he was ousted after one term.
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California
The thirty-first state to join the Union, California became a state in 1850. This followed a major population boost as a result of the discovery of gold in 1849. The state sided with the Union in the Civil War. Today the state is home to the American film industry, centered in Hollywood. Former President Richard Nixon was born there and President Ronald Reagan served as governor of the state.
Calloway, Cab
Also known as the "Hi De Ho Man," Cab Calloway was born in Rochester, New York in 1907. A versatile song and dance man, Calloway became a headline performer and bandleader at the prestigious Cotton Club following his starring role in the Broadway show Connie's Hot Chocolates. A million-selling recording artist, Calloway's singing, dancing and flamboyant style made him one of the most famous entertainers during the Swing Era. He continued performing up until his death in 1994 at the age of 88.
Canada
A land of vast distances and rich natural resources, Canada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 while retaining ties to the British crown. Economically and technologically the nation has developed in parallel with the US, its neighbor to the south across the longest undefended border in the world. Its paramount political problem continues to be the relationship of the province of Quebec, with its French-speaking residents and unique culture, to the remainder of the country.
Caribbean
Region just east of the Gulf of Mexico and south of the United States. Within the Caribbean Sea there are nearly two-dozen countries. The Caribbean was the first place visited by Christopher Columbus, who first landed on an island in the present-day Bahamas. In the following century, the Caribbean islands quickly became key sites of colonial conquest. European colonial powers enslaved local indigenous populations and also brought hundreds of thousands of African slaves to the region, forcing them to work on sugar and coffee plantations. While many Caribbean islands have since achieved independence, many remain colonial territories, governed from afar by the Americans, British, Dutch and French.
Carmichael, Stokely
Socio-political activist Stokely Carmichael was leader of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). Changing the group's focus from integration to "black liberation," Carmichael popularized the phrase "black power" and emerged as the honorary prime minister of the Black Panther party. He opposed forming alliances with radical whites and resigned from the Panthers over their decision to use this approach (1968). Carmichael began to call himself Kwame Ture, after African socialist leaders Kwame Nkrumah and Ahmed Sekou Toure. Ture died in 1998 after a two-year battle with prostate cancer.
Carnegie Hall
World-famous performance hall located in New York City. Since it's founding in 1891 by industrialist Andrew Carnegie, the world's most talented artists have graced the hallowed hall. Today, the building has become a cultural icon. Playing Carnegie Hall is considered one of the highest levels of achievement for a performing artist.
Carter, Betty
Jazz singer, composer and band leader Betty Carter was born Lillie Mae Jones in Flint, Michigan. She is revered for upholding the history and traditions of classic and traditional jazz music. An innnovative vocal stylist, versatile improvisor, and recipient of numerous grammy nominations, she formed her own record label, Bet-Car, and went on to train many younger musicians during a period when traditional jazz was losing its commercial standing. She sang with Lionel Hampton, Dizzy Gillespie, Charlie Parker and many other jazz legends. Ms. Carter died September 26, 1998 at her home in New York after being awarded the National Medal of Arts in 1997.
Carter, Jimmy
The 39th President of the United States. Carter served from 1977 to 1981, and while his presidency was troubled by both energy and hostage crises, he was also responsible for bringing peace between Egypt and Israel. Today Carter remains active for human rights.
Carver, George Washington
A distinguished educator and agricultural researcher, George Washington Carver was born in Diamond, Missouri in 1864. Along with his mother and older brother, George spent his childhood on the plantation Moses and Susan Carver. There he learned the dynamics of crop rotation and cross-fertilization, which formed the basis of his later botanical discoveries. George Washington Carver developed numerous products from peanut and sweet potato plants, including several plastics, industrial lubricants, and facial creams. As Carver's discoveries became known to the scientific and farming communities, he became an increasingly renowned symbol of African American success. He died in 1943.
Charles, Ray
One of the preeminent singers/entertainers in the nation. A virtuoso piano player, the blind singer/songwriter achieved stardom with his 1960 record, "Georgia." Since then he has won 12 Grammies, earned a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and been inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. He passed away on June 10, 2004.
Chartered Life Underwriter
An individual who has attained a high degree of technical competency in the fields of life and health insurance and who is expected to abide by a code of ethics. Must have minimum of three years of experience in life or health insurance sales and have passed ten professional examinations in insurance, investments and taxation administered by The American College.
Chess Records
Two Polish immigrant brothers, Leonard and Phil Chess, founded Chess Records in 1947. It would later grow to become one of the most successful and influential music labels of post-war America. The label recorded such legends as Muddy Waters, Howlin' Wolf and John Lee Hooker and helped to establish the Chicago blues sound.
Chicago Alliance of African American Photographers
Established by professional photographers Leslie Adkins, Bob Black, Martha Brock, Milbert O. Brown Jr., Terry Harris, Brent Jones and Lee Landry, the CAAAP was organized in 1999 to unify and promote the art of photography and through the photojournalistic, documentation of the African-American culture. The organization also presents exhibits, lectures and educational programs.
Chicago Defender
Founded in 1905 by Robert S. Abbott, The Chicago Defender was the most influential newspaper published by African Americans in the United States. The Defender campaigned against white oppression and contributed heavily to the Northern Migration of more than one million African Americans leaving Jim Crow states for industrial cities of the North. The newspaper featured several prominent writers as regular columnists, including Gwendolyn Brooks and Langston Hughes. Still located in Chicago's historic Bronzeville community, the Defender circulates over 30,000 newspapers weekly.
Chicago State University
Public university located on Chicago's South Side. The university is home to the Gwendolyn Brooks Center for Black Literature and Creative Writing.
Chicago Symphony Orchestra
One of the world's preeminent classical orchestras, this orchestra resides at the Chicago Symphony Center, an historic 1904 Daniel Burnham architectural site. The Chicago Symphony Orchestra maintains a reputation for the breadth of its classical repertoire and its tradition of musical excellence. More recently, the Chicago Symphony has expanded its offerings to include jazz and other popular genres.
Chicago Urban League
Since 1916 this community-based organization has been working to eradicate racial segregation, discrimination, and the disenfranchisement of all poor communities. Currently headed by James Compton, the organization focuses on education, economic development and community empowerment. It is a member of the National Urban League.
Chicago, Illinois
The largest city in Illinois, and the third largest city in the U.S.. The first permanent, non-indigenous settler in the region was a black Haitian named Jean Baptiste Point DuSable. In 1779 he built a house on the banks of the Chicago River, on what is today Michigan Avenue. After the infamous Great Chicago Fire of 1871, which destroyed all but several buildings in the region, Chicago rebuilt rapidly and experienced tremendous growth during the latter part of the 19th century. The city became a destination for immigrants from around the globe, as well as rural farmers and African Americans emigrating from the South. During this period Chicago developed its reputation as a city of industrial grit, ruthless political bosses and rich cultural diversity. Native poet Carl Sandburg called Chicago the "City of Big Shoulders" in his 1916 "Chicago Poems," and the nickname stuck. In recent years, Chicago has undergone yet another rebirth, witnessing a growth in population for the first time in decades. As of the 2000 Census, the city was home to 2,896,016 residents.
Chicago's South Side
Chicago's South Side is a complex of African American communities that was created largely during the great Northern Migration period of the early 20th century. As a self-sufficient community within a segregated city, the South Side featured its own thriving economic and social structures until the years following the Civil Rights Movement when it experienced a depression brought about by the dynamics of integration.
China
For centuries China stood as a leading civilization, outpacing the rest of the world in the arts and sciences. But in the 19th and early 20th centuries, China was beset by civil unrest, major famines, military defeats, and foreign occupation. After World War II, the Communists under Mao Zedong established a dictatorship that, while ensuring China's sovereignty, imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people. After 1978, his successor Deng Xiaoping gradually introduced market-oriented reforms and decentralized economic decision-making.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Passed July 2, 1964, supporters of this landmark bill intended to abolish discrimination based on race, color, religion or national origin. Often cited as the most important civil rights legislation since the Reconstruction period (1865-77), Congress enacted this bill in response to mounting public outrage over discriminatory practices in voting, employment, and access to public facilities.
Civil Rights Movement
A massive effort led by African Americans seeking to abolish racial discrimination in the United States, the Civil Rights Movement officially began in 1955 with the organized boycott of the Montgomery, Alabama bus system. The movement was host to many different philosophies and approaches; however, a non-violent strategy promoted by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was the preferred means of resistance. The strategic application of boycotts, sit-ins and other nonviolent activity eroded the pattern of racially segregated public facilities in the South. On August 1963, the movement reached its climax with the historic March on Washington. Protestors united in support for a civil-rights bill pending in Congress, which eventually achieved the most important breakthroughs in equal-rights protection for African Americans since the Reconstruction period (1865-77).
Cleveland Call and Post
Founded in 1916, the Cleveland Call and Post is one of the nation's oldest and most prestigious black news publications. The newspaper gained prominence in the 1930s under the direction of publisher and editor William O. Walker.
Cleveland, Grover
Both the 22nd and 24th President of the United States. The only president to be elected to two non-consecutive terms, Cleveland served from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897. In both terms, Cleveland fought against special interest groups and was particularly against railroad strikes.
Clinton, William
The 42nd President of the United States. Clinton was the first Democratic President since Franklin Delano Roosevelt to be reelected and in his two terms, (1993-2001) Clinton presided over the longest peace-time economic expansion in U.S. history.
Coalition of 100 Black Women
A thirty-year-old non-profit networking and community service organization. The coalition seeks to enhance career opportunities, facilitate education and empower African American women.
Coltrane, John
Saxophonist, bandleader, composer and a larger than life Jazz legend. He first made a recording in 1949, playing BeBop with Dizzy Gillespie. Later, he would join the Miles Davis Quintet, where he was instantly recognized for his genius. After spending several years battling drug and alcohol addiction, Coltrane released his most successful and acclaimed recording, the masterpiece "A Love Supreme." The record attempted to express redemption and faith through music. He died at the youthful age of 40, remembered for his unwavering support of young avant-garde jazz artists.
Columbia College
An undergraduate and graduate institution that offers programs in the arts, communication and public information. It is located in Chicago's loop.
Columbia University
Ivy League University located in Morningside Heights, New York City. Founded as King's College in 1754 it is the nation's fifth oldest institution of higher learning. It is considered one of the most prestigious academic institutions in the nation.
Concerto
A musical composition featuring one or several soloists and an orchestra. The solos highlight the virtuosity of each soloist often in contrast or counterpoint to the work of the orchestra.
Congo
The Democratic Republic of the Congo, also known as Zaire, is located in central Africa. Founded as the kingdom of Kongo in the 1300s, this area evolved through coalitions with various indigenous people until it governed large sections of central Africa. The slave trade was a major influence in the region's disintegration by the end of the 19th century. At this time Europe controlled much the wealth of the area and Belgian investments in Congolese mining industry and mineral resources were especially significant. Kinshasa is its capital and largest city.
Congressional Black Caucus
Formed in 1970 by 13 African American members of the U.S. House of Representatives, the Congressional Black Caucus (CBC) joined together to strengthen their efforts in addressing the concerns of Black and minority citizens. CBC members believed that a united voice representing "the general welfare" of African American constituents would positively impact legislation and issues of public policy being considered in Congress. Currently, thirty-seven CBC members provide political influence and visibility for the largest and most populated urban centers in the United States in addition to many expansive and rural Congressional districts.
Connecticut
The fifth state to ratify the U.S. Constitution, Connecticut was home to part of the Freedom Trail. The Freedom Trail was part of the Underground Railroad which escaped slaves used to escape to Canada.
consul general
A diplomatic officer or agent of the highest rank of a government in a foreign country.
Coolidge, Calvin
The 30th President of the United States. Coolidge served from 1923 to 1929, and oversaw the economic prosperity following World War I and preceeding the Great Depression.
CORE
The Congress of Racial Equality. The organization was founded in 1942 as the Committee of Racial Equality by an interracial group of students from Chicago. CORE was responsible for the Journey of Reconcilliation which tested the Supreme Court ruling on the banning of segregation in interstate travel in 1947, and later led the Freedom Rides, among other accomplishments.
Cosmopolitan Chamber of Commerce
Located in Chicago's south loop, this organization serves as a network of community members, small businesses and large firms. It seeks to promote economic development and cross-cultural partnerships.
Creole
Refers to a person of mixed Black and European (normally French or Spanish) ancestry who speaks a creolized language, especially one based on French or Spanish; they are descended from or culturally related to the original French settlers of the southern United States, especially Louisiana. Also refers to a dialect or language spoken by such people.
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Dandridge, Dorothy
Singer and actress Dorothy Dandridge was born in Ohio in 1923. At an early age, her mother took her and her sisters to Baptist churches, where they would sing and perform skits for the gathered congregations. In 1940, she landed her first movie role, and in 1949 began performing in the nightclub circuit. There she experienced intense racism as the main attraction yet still was being forced to use separate facilities and not speak to patrons. She continued on, landing a title role in Carmen Jones in 1954. After starring in Porgy and Bess in 1959, her career slowed down from there. She was found dead in 1965.
Davis, Miles
Legendary trumpet player and jazz innovator. Davis is best remembered for his creative inertia, and bold, iconoclastic recordings including "Birth Of The Cool," "Sketches of Spain," and "Kind of Blue." After getting his start with legend Charlie Parker in the late 1940s, Davis branched out and began the movement called "Cool Jazz." In 1970, he released the revolutionary "Bitches Brew," a fusion of jazz, funk and rock that went on to sell 400,000 copies, becoming the best-selling jazz album of all time.
Davis, Sammy, Jr.
Popular singer and stage and film actor who started touring with his family's troupe, the Will Mastin Trio, at age three. He was a member of Frank Sinatra's "Rat Pack." He nearly died in a 1954 car accident that resulted in the loss of his left eye. His films include Johnny Cool (1963) and Robin and the Seven Hoods (1964). His stage credits include Mr. Wonderful (1956). He passed away in 1990.
Delaware
The first state to ratify the Constitution in 1787, the state of Delaware was founded in the early 1600s by Swedish and Dutch settlers but were driven out by the English. Despite a large population of Quakers, who were opposed to slavery, people continued to own slaves in the state until the end of the Civil War. The state of Delaware was one of five defendents in the Brown v. Board of Education case, but despite the ruling, desegregation was slow in many parts of the state. Wilmington, the largest city in the state, elected its first black mayor in 1993.
Denzel Washington
Actor, director and producer born on December 28, 1954 in Mount Vernon, New York. He made his acting debut in the television movie, "Wilma" in 1975. Washington's first feature film was "Carbon Copy" in 1981. He went on to star in the television series, "St. Elsewhere" and feature films like "A Soldier's Story", "Cry Freedom" and "The Mighty Quinn". He was nominated and won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role in "Glory" in 1989. He was nominated for Best Actor in 1992 for Spike Lee's "Malcolm X" and was nominated again for his role as Ruben "Hurricane" Carter in the "The Hurricane" in 1999. He won Best Actor, the first African American to win the award since Sidney Poitier in 1963, for his role in "Training Day" in 2001. Washington's other film credits include "Mo' Better Blues", "Devil In A Blue Dress", "He Got Game" and "Remember The Titans". He made is directorial debut in 2002 with "Antwone Fisher".
Detroit
Seventh largest American city, located in southern Michigan. Since the American automotive revolution of the 1920s, Detroit has been synonymous with the automobile industry. In the 1960s, the city gained national attention as birthplace of Motown. The label, founded by black entrepreneur Berry Gordy, featured black singers and performers who created a distinct and novel sound that ruled the pop charts for much of the decade. As of the 2000 Census, the city's population is 951,270.
Detroit Symphony Orchestra
The Detroit Symphony Orchestra was established in 1914 and is fast becoming one of the most prominent orchestras in the United States. Briefly renamed the Paradise Theatre in 1941, Detroit's Orchestra Hall once served as a premier jazz venue which featured Ella Fitzgerald, Billy Holliday, Count Basie and Duke Ellington. Since its founding, the Detroit Symphony Orchestra has been at the forefront of music education. The Detroit Symphony Orchestra Fellowship Program for African American musicians and the African American Composers Residency are examples of this orchestra's commitment to outreach and training.
Dollars and Sense Magazine
A "Bi-Monthly Magazine of Economic Issues and Opinion," the publication was founded in 1974 by the Union for Radical Political Economics. To this day, the magazine operates as a collective, based in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
DuBois, W.E.B.
Scholar, social scientist and political activist W(illiam) E(dward) B(urghardt) DuBois served as director of research for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and editor of its influential magazine, "The Crisis". His famous book, The Souls of Black Folk, examined the dualistic nature of the African American experience and strategies to combat oppression. The critique polarized the philosophical positions of Black intellectuals between Booker T. Washington's conservative strategy and DuBois' more ‘radical' framework. He left the United States for Ghana under allegations that he was an agent working for foreign governments. DuBois died in 1963.
DuSable Museum of African American History
Founded in 1961 in the home of artist and writer Dr. Margaret Burroughs, the DuSable Museum is dedicated to the preservation and exhibition of African American and pan-African artifacts and history. In 1973 the Museum was moved to its present location in Washington Park, Illinois where it continues to serve as an important resource of African American scholarship.
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East St. Louis, Illinois
Southeastern Illinois city with a population of 31,542. The city's thriving industrial base left the city in the 1960s, leading to high unemployment and near economic collapse.
Easter Seals
An 80-year-old organization that offers support services and advocacy on the behalf of those with disabilities and special needs. Ohio businessman Edgar Allen founded Easter Seals, after he lost his son in a streetcar accident. The organization is named for the famous ‘seals' that carry the organization's logo and are affixed to envelopes during fundraising drives.
Ebony Magazine
Founded in the early 1940s by John H. Johnson of Chicago, Illinois, Ebony Magazine is a successful monthly journal circulated by Johnson Publishing Company, Inc., the world's largest African American-owned publishing company. Featuring news, entertainment, business, and other topics catering to a black audience, Ebony Magazine continues to enjoy a large subscriber base of over 2 million readers.
Egypt
The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood, coupled with semi-isolation provided by deserts to the east and west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great civilizations. A unified kingdom arose circa 3200 B.C. and a series of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last native dynasty fell to the Persians in 341 B.C., who in turn were replaced by the Greeks, Romans, and Byzantines. It was the Arabs who introduced Islam and the Arabic language in the 7th century and who ruled for the next six centuries. A local military caste, the Mamluks took control about 1250 and continued to govern after the conquest of Egypt by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. Following the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation hub, but also fell heavily into debt. Ostensibly to protect its investments, Britain seized control of Egypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the Ottoman Empire continued until 1914. Partially independent from the UK in 1922, Egypt acquired full sovereignty following World War II.
Eisenhower, Dwight
The 34th President of the United States. Eisenhower served from 1953 to 1961, and under his leadership, federal troops were sent to Little Rock, Arkansas to ensure school desegregation took place. He also fully desegregated the armed forces.
Ellington, Duke
Originally named Edward Kennedy Ellington, composer and bandleader Duke was born in Washington, D.C. in 1899. A precocious child, Ellington developed his early piano skills by imitating the trills of local ragtime musicians. A successful professional musician by the early 1920s, Ellington settled in New York City, the capital of the jazz and big band era. Between December 1927 and 1931, Duke and his band headlined at Harlem's prestigious Cotton Club, which placed him in the international spotlight. Throughout the following four decades, Duke Ellington established himself as one of the most prolific and innovative figures within American music. He died in 1974.
Englewood High School
A Chicago public high school, located on the city's historic South Side. President Bill Clinton visited the school in 1999.
epidemiologist
A person who studies the causes, distribution, and control of diseases in populations.
Essence Magazine
A lifestyle magazine that caters to African American women, Essence has a monthly circulation of over 1 million and a readership of nearly 8 million. Since it's founding by Edward Lewis over thirty years ago, Essence has thrived under the direction of Susan Taylor.
ETA Creative Arts Foundation
Founded in 1971 by actress, director, and producer Abena Brown, the ETA Creative Arts Foundation is among Chicago's most productive African American institutions dedicated to the performing arts. Located on Chicago's South Side, ETA has remained a community resource dedicated to the self-expression of African American culture. The theater has received national recognition for the originality of its dramatic productions and the effectiveness of its community outreach programs.
Ethiopia
Unique among African countries, the ancient Ethiopian monarchy maintained its freedom from colonial rule, one exception being the Italian occupation of 1936-41. In 1974 a military junta, the Derg, deposed Emperor Haile Selassie (who had ruled since 1930) and established a socialist state. Torn by bloody coups, uprisings, wide-scale drought, and massive refugee problems, the regime was finally toppled by a coalition of rebel forces, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), in 1991. A constitution was adopted in 1994 and Ethiopia's first multiparty elections were held in 1995.
Evers, Medgar
Born in Decatur, Mississippi, in 1925, Medgar Evers fought in Normandy during World War II. After college he and his wife moved to Mound Bayou, Mississippi, during which time Evers began to establish local chapters of the NAACP throughout the Delta and organizing boycotts of gasoline stations that refused to allow blacks to use their restrooms. He worked in Mound Bayou as an insurance agent until 1954, the year a Supreme Court decision ruled school segregation unconstitutional. Despite the court's ruling, Evers applied for and was denied admission to the University of Mississippi Law School, but his attempt to integrate the state's oldest public university attracted the attention of the NAACP's national office, and that same year he was appointed Mississippi's first field secretary for the NAACP. His work getting James Meredith admitted to the University of Mississippi in 1962 was successful, but on June 12, 1963, Evers was assassinated. His accussed killer, Byron De La Beckwith, was twice tried in the 1960s, but it was not until 1994 that he was convicted of the killing.
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