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Parker, Charlie
Influential saxophonist and composer who achieved his greatest fame in the 1940s. Charlie ‘Yardbird' Parker was born in Kansas City, Missouri. He would later play in Kansas City, Chicago and New York, before starting his own band in 1945. His fast-paced, breathtaking improvisations won him national acclaim for bebop and he became an inspiration to generations of jazz musicians. After years of battling drug addiction, Parker died in 1955 at the age of 34.
Parks, Rosa
Often referred to as the "mother of the Civil Rights Movement," Rosa Parks is best known for refusing to give up her seat to a white male on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama. Her actions sparked the Montgomery bus boycott of 1955 and led to the Supreme Court ruling which declared segregation on public buses unconstitutional. In 1999, Parks received the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian honor offered by the United States government. Presently, she works with the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development, which offers career and leadership guidance to young African Americans.
Peace Corps
Tracing its roots back to a 1960 speech by John F. Kennedy at the University of Michigan, the Peace Corps has since sent 170,000 volunteers to over 100 countries to help in education, environmental technology and technological innovations, to name a few areas. The Peace Corps is devoted to helping people, and to bridging gaps between Americans and citizens of other cultures.
Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania was the second state to ratify the U.S. Constitution. During the Revolutionary War, Philadelphia was a focal point of the resistance to the British, and it became a center for the abolitionsit cause, as well. Prior to the Civil War, Pennsylvania had fewer slaves than any other state. The two largest cities in the state are Philadelphia and Pittsburgh.
Philippines
Located in the Pacific Ocean, the Phillipines were ceded by Spain to the US in 1898 following the Spanish-American War. They attained independence in 1946 after Japanese occupation in World War II.
Poitier, Sidney
Born on February 20, 1924 renowned actor and film director Sidney Poitier has used his craft to empower African Americans working in the entertainment industry. Poitier has challenged stereotypes throughout his career, choosing films that contested racial boundaries including "In the Heat of the Night" and "Guess Who's Coming to Dinner?" Poitier was the first African-American to be nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor. He received an Oscar for his moving portrayal of Homer Smith in 1963s "Lilies of the Field".
Porgy and Bess
This timeless American opera was adapted from the novel "Porgy" by DuBose Heyward. Based on a newspaper account a disabled man's escape from police after assaulting a woman, Heyward and his wife Dorothy first dramatized the novel in 1927. The play ran for 367 performances to enthusiastic audiences. Among those interested in the production was famed composer George Gershwin. After years of correspondence with the author, George and his brother Ira joined Heyward to collaborate on a folk opera based on the novel. The first cast included Todd Duncan, Anne Brown, John W. Bubbles and the 0">Eva Jessye Choir. Years of successful touring inspired the 1959 motion picture version of the same name.
Powell, Adam Clayton
Reverend Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., was the first African American politician to gain substantive power in the United States Congress. Born in 1908, Powell would go on to stage protests in the 1930s in Harlem, and in 1944 he was elected to the United States House of Representatives for the district of Harlem. Powell clashed with people on Capitol Hill, sometimes those in his own party, especially when he took black constituents to dine with him in the "whites only" dining room of the Capitol. He remained in Congress until 1970, surving expulsion in 1967 when the Supreme Court ruled that the House had acted illegally in preventing him from taking his seat. He lost a primary in 1970 to Charles Rangel, and Powell retired to Florida where he passed away two years later. Despite the scandal that surrounded the end of his career, Powell was instrumental in the passing of a number of important pieces of social legislation and was a tireless fighter for equality.
Procter & Gamble
Multi-national corporation that manufactures health, beauty and baby care products as well as food and beverage. The company was founded in Cincinnati, Ohio in 1837 as a small, family-operated soap and candle business.
Pryor, Richard
Influential and controversial comedian. Known trailblazing and edgy material Pryor's performances are some of the most celebrated of all time, and have won him five Grammy awards. His troubled personal life, numerous divorces and battles with drug addiction have served as material for his brutally honest comedy. He was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis in 1986, and in 1993 was honored with the Kennedy Center's Mark Twain Prize.
Puerto Rico
Populated for centuries by aboriginal peoples, the island was claimed by the Spanish Crown in 1493 following Columbus' second voyage to the Americas. In 1898, after 400 years of colonial rule that saw the indigenous population nearly exterminated and African slave labor introduced, Puerto Rico was ceded to the US as a result of the Spanish-American War. Puerto Ricans were granted US citizenship in 1917 and popularly elected governors have served since 1948. In 1952, a constitution was enacted providing for internal self-government. In plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and 1998 voters chose to retain commonwealth status.
Pulitzer Prize
Named after Hungarian-born jounalist Joseph Pulitzer, the Prize is awarded for excellence in journalism. Since the inception of the award, it has expanded to include not only print journalism, but also photography, editorial cartoons, fiction, non-fiction, poetry and music.
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Rainbow-PUSH Coalition
Reverend Jesse L. Jackson united Operation PUSH and the National Rainbow Coalition into the Rainbow/PUSH Coalition (RPC) during the 1980s. A multicultural, international initiative, RPC works for social justice, challenging human rights abuses in the political, economic and social arenas. The coalition has been responsible for leading successful voter-registration drives, increasing business opportunities for minority groups, and affecting social policy in Haiti and South Africa.
Randolph, A. Philip
Founder of the first African American labor union, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters in 1925, Randolph went on to serve as a vice president of the newly merged AFL-CIO in 1955. After dissatisfaction over the AFL-CIO's inaction regarding discrimination in the workplace, Randolph founded the Negro American Labor Council in 1960. Randolph also led a march on Washington in 1963 and founded an institute to study the causes of poverty.
Ravinia Festival
An international three month long performing arts festival, the Chicago-based Ravinia Festival is the summer home to the Chicago Symphony Orchestra. It also presents a diverse schedule of jazz, chamber music, dance, world music and children's shows in a pastoral, open air setting.
Reagan, Ronald
The 40th President of the United States. Former actor turned president, Reagan served from 1981 to 1989. During that time, he was nearly assassinated. Under the Reagan administration, the nation rebounded from the stagnant economy of the 1970s. He also maintained a strong presence against Communist rebels around the globe.
Regal Theatre
Famed entertainment venue on Chicago's South Side. It once featured performances by such luminaries as Duke Ellington, Billie Holiday and Louis Armstrong. After falling into disrepair the theater has recently been remodeled and named the New Regal Theatre, under the direction of Edward Gardner.
Rhode Island
The thirteenth state to ratify the Constitution, Rhode Island was founded by individuals who faced religious persecution in other colonies. Rhode Island is the smallest of the fifty States.
Rhythm & Blues
Coined in 1947 by Billboard editor Jerry Wexler, the term rhythm and blues (R&B) refers to the sophisticated urban music that became popular, especially among African Americans, in the 1940s. Characterized by humorous lyrics and upbeat rhythms, R&B synthesized mainstream jazz styles with traditional blues forms.
Riperton, Minnie
Born November 8, 1947, vocalist Minnie Riperton began her recording career with the Gems on Chess Studios. Although Riperton was classically trained, she was drawn to the expressive freedom of rock n roll. Her experimental style as lead vocalist for the progressive Rotary Connection caught the attention of music industry elites, and she began working as a backup vocal artist for Quincy Jones, Roberta Flack, Freddie Hubbard, and Etta James. Riperton's career skyrocketed in the mid 1970s with the albums "Perfect Angel" and "Adventures in Paradise." Diagnosed with breast cancer in 1976, Riperton began an aggressive awareness campaign. Her numerous appearances focused national attention on this life threatening disease. Riperton's last album, simply titled "Minnie," was recorded less than one year before her death in 1979. She was 32 years old.
Robeson, Paul
Gifted stage actor, singer, political activist, Paul Robeson was born in Princeton, New Jersey April 9, 1898. Robeson's deep bass and commanding stage presence impressed audiences worldwide. He received critical acclaim for performances in The Emperor Jones, Showboat, and Othello as well as for his renditions of black spirituals. By the early 1940s, Robeson's activism on behalf of racial justice, social progress, and international peace caught the attention of the U.S. government. Political attacks against his progressive ideology culminated in his blacklisting during the McCarthy Era and the canceling of his passport. Robeson spent most of the next 13 years living in Russia and London, returning to the United States in 1963. Serious health problems ended his illustrious career and he died in 1976.
Robinson, Jackie
The first African American baseball player to play in the Major Leagues since its official segregation at the beginning of the century, Jackie Robinson courageously braved verbal and physical assaults while playing second base for the Brooklyn Dodgers. After breaking baseball's color barrier in 1946 he went on to a stellar career and paved the way for thousands of black athletes in professional sports. He was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962.
Robinson, Smokey
songwriter, and producer, born William Robinson, in Detroit, Michigan, USA. The lead singer with The Miracles (1959- -72), he also wrote and arranged for young artists on the Tamla Motown record label, and in 1961 became vice-president of the company. With the Miracles he had his first big US hit in "Shop Around' (1961). "Tears of a Clown' (1970) topped both the US and UK music charts, and became their most successful single.
He left to pursue a solo career after a farewell tour in 1972. In 1991 he received the Heritage Award for outstanding career achievements in music and entertainment at the 5th annual Soul Train awards.
Roosevelt University
An urban university friendly to Chicago's black and ethnic communities. It was founded in 1945.
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano
The 32nd President of the United States. Roosevelt is the longest serving president, having served from 1933 until his death in 1945.
Roosevelt, Theodore
The twenty-sixth President of the United States. Serving two terms from 1901 to 1909, Roosevelt ensured the creation of the Panama Canal, won a Nobel Peace Prize for negotiating an end to the Russo-Japanese War and helped create the Nation Park System.
Ross, Diana
Legendary R&B and Motown singer, Diana Ross got her start as the lead vocalist of the Motown sensation the Supremes, a group that sold more albums than any other American act during the 1960s. After a string of hits with the Supremes, Ross left the group in 1970 to pursue a solo career. As a soloist, she is one of the top-selling female vocalists of all time.
Roundabout Theatre Company
Founded in 1965 by Gene Feist and his wife, actress Elizabeth Owens, the Roundabout Theatre Company is a non-profit subscription based theatre company in New York City that has put on many plays for over forty years. The theatre's productions have been nominated for more than seventy awards including Tony and Olivier Awards.
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Seale, Bobby
Bobby Seale was the chairman and co-founder of the Black Panther Party, an organization formed in 1966 to guard against police brutality in black neighborhoods and provide social services. Eventually the party developed into a militant revolutionary group with thousands of members in several major cities. In 1969, Seale, as one of the "Chicago Eight," was charged with conspiracy to incite riots during the 1968 Democratic National Convention. Charges against him were eventually dropped, but not before he had been bound and gagged to silence his courtroom outbursts. During 1970 and 1971 he was tried for the torture-murder of former Panther Alex Rackley, who was suspected of being a police informant. That trial ended in a hung jury, and afterward, Seale moderated his more militant views, leaving the Panthers altogether in 1974. He continues to remain active in seeking social justice.
Seaway National Bank
A community-based full-service commercial bank located on Chicago's South Side. Seaway National Bank was founded in 1965 to counter discriminatory lending practices by banks in the African American community. The founders of the bank sold shares of the enterprise door-to-door in order to raise the bank's first $100,000. Today, Seaway National Bank is the nation's largest African American-owned bank. Jacoby Dickens serves as the bank's Chairman of the Board.
Segregated
Restricting the movement of a specific population to certain designated areas or separate institutions and facilities on the basis of a set of characteristics. Segregation is designed to reinforce social hierarchies and support political and economic privileges of the dominant group. In the United States, racial segregation of African Americans was widely practiced up until the 1960s when the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed legal discrimination in public facilities.
Senegal
The Republic of Senegal is located in West Africa. Archeological evidence, such as stone tools, suggests that the area has been inhabited for 15,000 years or more. During a period spanning the 8th, through the 11th, to the 14th century in what is now Senegal, several dominant regional empires were formed - the Ghanaian, the Tekrour and the Mali. Senegal's official language is French, although several other languages including Wolof, Jola, Pulaar and Mandinka are widely spoken. More than 90 \\% of the population is Moslem. Senegal, whose economy is primarily agricultural, has been a constitutional republic since 1963 with Dakar as its capital.
Sharecroppers
Those who worked as paid farm labor shortly after the Civil War. Under the sharecropping system, a family rented a share of a large plantation owned by a landowner. In order to efficiently till the land, sharecroppers had to acquire tools, fertilizer and seeds. Often these were loaned by the same white landowners who demanded even larger portions of the harvest as repayment for the debt. Many sharecroppers fell deeper and deeper into debt, barely able to produce enough from the land to feed themselves and their families.
Showboat
One of the masterpieces of the American musical theater. Written in the late 1920s by Jerome Kern and Oscar Hammerstein, Showboat's weighty subject matter and treatment of racial prejudice revolutionized the musical theater and popular theater in general. Revived countless times, Showboat has launched the career of many black actors, including Paul Robeson. "Showboat"'s most famous songs, "Old Man River" and "That Man of Mine," remain central parts of the American cultural cannon.
Smithsonian Institution
Independent public trust of the United States. The Smithsonian holds over 140 million artifacts and specimens relating to U.S. history and culture. Founded in 1846 with funds bequeathed to the United States by James Smithson, the Smithsonian has grown to include sixteen museums and galleries, a National Zoo as well as numerous research facilities around the world.
sociology
The study or science of human society.
Soft Sheen Products
Cosmetics company founded in 1964 by Ed Gardner. Soft Sheen manufactured and sold beauty products aimed at black men and women. Before it was bought by L'Oreal in 1998, it was the largest African American-owned beauty products company in the United States.
Solicitor General
Federal government official charged with overseeing government cases brought before the Supreme Court. The Office of the Solicitor General is involved in approximately two-thirds of the cases argued before the U.S. Supreme Court.
Soul
Soul signifies a return to black music's roots - gospel and blues. The genre incorporates vocal intensity and call-and-response techniques marked by an emotional delivery. Artists like Aretha Franklin and James Brown popularized soul in American culture during the 1970s. Soul continues to be an influential medium and has inspired contemporary musical styles such as funk and hip-hop.
South Africa
Postcolonial independent nation located on Africa's southern tip. Originally inhabited by Bantu-speaking tribes, what is today South Africa was conquered by the Dutch, and then the British, in the 17th and 18th centuries. By 1910, South Africa was an independent nation run entirely by descendants of Dutch and British colonizers. The white government created a segregated system of "apartheid" (‘apartness') in which the nation's black African majority was denied access to basic civil rights, and separated entirely from the politically and economically empowered white minority. After years of struggle and resistance the system of apartheid was overthrown in 1994, when the first democratic election was held. Nelson Mandela, a former political prisoner and civil rights activist, was elected president.
South Carolina
The eighth state to ratify the U.S. Constitution, South Carolina was the first state to secede from the Union on December 24, 1860. Troops from the South Carolina militia also led the first battle of the Civil War when they attacked Fort Sumpter. Following years of economic devastation as a result of the Civil War, the state finally began a recovery in the 1900s. With the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s came a relatively peaceful adjustment with the exception of the killing of three black protesters by state police in Orangeville. Since then, the state has sent numerous African Americans to office.
South Korea
After World War II, a republic was set up in the southern half of the Korean Peninsula while a Communist-style government was installed in the north. During the Korean War (1950-1953), US and other UN forces intervened to defend South Korea from North Korean attacks supported by the Chinese. An armistice was signed in 1953, splitting the Peninsula along a demilitarized zone at about the 38th parallel.
South Side Community Arts Center
Community space and art gallery, founded by Dr. Margaret Burroughs in 1941. Located on Chicago's South Side, the center has presented over 450 art exhibits, including works by Gordon Parks and Richard Hunt. In 1982 the center received the prestigious Governor's Award for the Arts in Illinois.
Southern Christian Leadership Conference
Founded in 1957 by Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., the Southern Christian Leadership Conference coordinated with various African American organizations to fight for racial equality. Employing Dr. King's nonviolent strategies, SCLC staged mass boycotts and sit-ins, organized voter-registration drives and sponsored citizen education programs. Most notably, SCLC played a key role in the 1963 March on Washington and in influencing the passage of major civil rights legislation during the mid-1960s. Reverend Ralph David Abernathy succeeded Dr. King as head of SCLC after King's assassination in 1968. However, over the next decade SCLC's political and social influence diminished greatly.
Southern Poverty Law Center
A civil rights law firm founded in 1971, today the Center is one of the largest civil rights organizations in the country. Located in Montgomery, Alabama, SPLC seeks to promote tolerance education as well as monitor the activities of white supremacist groups.
Spain
Spain's powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuries ultimately yielded command of the seas to England. Subsequent failure to embrace the mercantile and industrial revolutions caused the country to fall behind Britain, France, and Germany in economic and political power. Spain remained neutral in World Wars I and II, but suffered through a devastating civil war (1936-39). In the second half of the 20th century, Spain has played a catch-up role in the western international community; it joined the EU in 1986.
Spelman College
A private, historically black institution of higher learning for women located in Atlanta, Georgia. The school's history is traced to 1881, when two Boston women, Sophia Packard and Harriet Giles, began teaching 11 black women, mostly ex-slaves, in a church basement. Spelman offers degrees in more than 20 fields, including the arts, sciences, psychology, and computer science. Total enrollment is about 2,000.
Spike Lee
Born Shelton Jackson Lee on March 20, 1957 in Atlanta, Georgia. Lee spent one year in Chicago, Illinois and then his family moved to Brooklyn, New York. Lee attended New York University Graduate Film School after attaining his bachelor's degree from Morehouse College. He won the student academy award for his short film, "Joe's Bed-Stuy Barbershop: We Cut Heads". In 1986, Lee made his first feature film, "She's Gotta Have It". It was one of the most profitable independent films made at that time. In 1989, Lee's screenplay for "Do The Right Thing" was nominated for Best Original Screenplay by the Academy of Motion Pictures Arts and Sciences. Lee's other film credits include "School Daze", "Malcolm X", "Mo' Better Blues", "Jungle Fever", "Four Little Girls", "He Got Game" and "Inside Man". As a producer, writer and director, Lee is considered one of the most talented and controversial filmmakers working today.
State Comptroller
A state's chief fiscal officer, the responsibilities normally include auditing of government fiscal records, managing retirement funds of state employees, and overseeing the fiscal activities of local governments.
State Department
Officially The Department of State, this division of the executive branch is responsible for U.S. diplomacy. The Secretary of State is one of the highest profile cabinet positions. Such notables as Charles Evans Hughes, John Foster Dulles and Colin Powell have occupied this position.
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
One of the key civil rights organizations of the early 1960s, "Snick," as the organization was known, was committed to direct action, civil disobedience and voter registration of disenfranchised African Americans. Founded by Southern college students in 1960, the organization helped to organized sit-ins in segregated businesses (such as Woolworths) and massive voter-registration drives throughout the rural South. The group also organized the famous "Freedom Rides" in 1961, in which SNCC members rode through the South, integrating interstate travel while braving violence and abuse from the segregationist opposition.
Studio Museum in Harlem
A museum of visual art, dedicated to exhibiting work by African Americans. Since its founding in a Harlem loft in 1967, the Studio Museum has grown and recently announced plans for a major renovation and expansion. The museum is currently located on W. 125th Street, in the heart of Harlem, New York.
Sweden
A military power during the 17th century, Sweden has not participated in any war in almost two centuries. An armed neutrality was preserved in both World Wars. Sweden's long-successful economic formula of a capitalist system interlarded with substantial welfare elements was challenged in the 1990s by high unemployment, rising maintenance costs, and a declining position in world markets. Indecision over the country's role in the political and economic integration of Europe delayed Sweden's entry into the EU until 1995, and waived the introduction of the euro in 1999.
Switzerland
Switzerland's independence and neutrality have long been honored by the major European powers, and Switzerland was not involved in either of the two World Wars. The political and economic integration of Europe over the past half century, as well as Switzerland's role in many UN and international organizations, has strengthened Switzerland's ties with its neighbors. However, the country did not officially become a UN member until 2002. Switzerland remains active in many UN and international organizations, but retains a strong commitment to neutrality.
Symbionese Liberation Army
The Symbionese Liberation Army was an American paramilitary group with a radical ideology. They committed two murders, bank robberies, and other acts of violence between 1973 and 1975. Even though they never had more than 13 members, they became the top ongoing media story during their underground fugitive period. They are famous for kidnapping wealthy media heiress Patty Hearst, granddaughter of William Randolph Hearst, in 1974 and allegedly brainwashing and convincing her to join the group and take part in their illegal activities, including bank robberies.
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Taft, William
The 27th President of the United States. Taft served from 1909 to 1913, and is the only president to both serve as the Chief Executive and as a Justice of the Supreme Court.
Tanzania
Shortly after independence, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form the nation of Tanzania in 1964. One-party rule came to an end in 1995 with the first democratic elections held in the country since the 1970s. Zanzibar's semi-autonomous status and popular opposition have led to two contentious elections since 1995, which the ruling party won despite international observers' claims of voting irregularities.
Taylor, Zachary
The twelfth United States President, Zachary Taylor served from 1849 to 1850. He became the second president to die in office, after becoming sick from eating a bowl of cherries at a 4th of July celebration.
Tennessee
The sixteenth state to be admitted to the United States, Tennessee seceded from the Union on June 8, 1861. Decades of lynchings, racism and segregation culminate with the Civil Rights Movement bringing these institutions to an end, and on April 4, 1968, Martin Luther King, Jr., is assassinated in Memphis.
Texas
The second largest state in the United States, Texas entered the Union as a slave state in 1846. With the outbreak of the Civil War, Texas joined the Confederacy in 1861. Following Reconstruction, Texas was readmitted to the Union in 1870. President George W. Bush hails from the state, having formerly been the governor.
The Amistad
Famous slave ship on which the would-be slaves revolted and took control of the ship under the leadership of Joseph Cinque. The ship was sighted off Long Island, and was towed to Connecticut. Former United States President John Quincy Adams defended their case for freedom before the Supreme Court, and their case was won in 1841.
The Art Institute of Chicago
World-renowned Chicago art museum, founded in 1866 by a group of local artists. Originally called the Chicago Academy of Design, the Institute's collection has grown to become one of the finest in the world. Today, the Art Institute is housed in a majestic complex on Chicago's Michigan Avenue.
The Habitat Company
Founded in 1971, The Habitat Company is one of the largest private residential property managers in Chicago and the Midwestern United States with over 28,000 units under its management. Some of its residential properties include Chicago's Elm Street Plaza and Riverfront Towers.
The Impressions
Chicago R&B group of the 1960s. Under the management of Eddie Thomas, the Impressions became a chart-sensation with the 1958 release of their record "For Your Precious Love." The record sold more than 150,000 copies during its first two weeks. In 1970, one the band's prime creative force, singer/songwriter Curtis Mayfield, left the group to pursue a successful solo career.
The School of the Art Institute
The educational wing of the famed Art Institute of Chicago. The school has been an integral part of the Art Institute since it's founding in 1866. It has trained some of country's most talented visual artists, including Richard Hunt and Dr. Margaret Burroughs.
The Temptations
Unoffically titled "The Emperors of Soul," The Temptations set standards for smooth vocals and stylistic choreography while recording for Motown Records. Romantic singles, which included "The Way You Do the Things You Do" (1964), "My Girl" (1964), and "Get Ready" (1966), made The Temptations one of the most popular soul music performers during the 1960s and 1970s. In 1989, their contributions were recognized by the musical industry and The Temptations were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
Trinidad
One of two islands that comprise the nation of Trinidad and Tobago. The islands came under British control in the 19th century, and independence was granted in 1962. The country is one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean, thanks largely to petroleum and natural gas production and processing.
Truman, Harry S.
The 33rd President of the United States. Truman served from 1945 until 1953. Truman proposed a full employment act, the Fair Employment Practices Act and an expansion of Social Security among other initiatives.
Tuskegee Airmen
The first all-African American flying unit in the U.S. military, Tuskegee Airmen served during World War II. The squadron was commissioned by the War Department under increased pressure from the NAACP and other organizations seeking to provide opportunities for African Americans in the armed forces. Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin Oliver Davis, Jr. commanded the Tuskegee Airmen's first graduating class. They flew over fifteen hundred missions and destroyed hundreds of enemy aircrafts without ever losing a bomber to hostile fire.
Tuskegee Institute
The Tuskegee Negro Normal Institute opened its doors on July 4, 1881 with Booker T. Washington presiding as principal. Later, George Washington Carver would join the faculty and help revolutionize agriculture in the South.
Tuskegee Syphilis Study
A medical research project conducted by the U.S. Public Health Service and the Tuskegee Institute noted for the unethical treatment of African American male patients. Research subjects were not informed they had syphilis and remained untreated so that scientists could study the long-term affects of the disease. The study violated U.S. governmental legislation that mandated the treatment of all sexually transmitted diseases. It is estimated that 100 men died during this 40-year experiment which lasted until an investigative journalist uncovered the story in 1972.
Tutu, Desmond
Born in Klerksdorp, Transvaal, in 1931, Desmond Tutu graduated from the University of South Africa and later studied theology in England. In 1975 he was appointed Dean of St. Mary's Cathedral in Johannesburg, the first black to hold that position. From 1976 to 1978 he was Bishop of Lesotho, and in 1978 became the first black General Secretary of the South African Council of Churches. Desmond Tutu has formulated his objective as "a democratic and just society without racial divisions." He was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in 1984 for his work to end apartheid.
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