The HistoryMakers

An independent governmental agency that reports to Congress. Since 1934, the FCC has been regulating radio, television, wire, satellite and cable communications. Presently headed by Chairman Michael K. Powell, the FCC is comprised of five commissioners appointed by the president and confirmed by Congress.

Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago

One of twelve Federal Reserve Banks nationwide that together serve as the nation's central banks under the Federal Reserve System. The Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago assists in setting monetary policy, providing services to banks and governmental agencies throughout the area.

Fellowship Baptist Church

Affectionately named "The Ship" by its parishioners, Fellowship Baptist Church was founded by Reverend Clay Evans in 1958. Located on Chicago's South Side, Fellowship Baptist Church has developed a thriving congregation over the years. The Church's weekly sermons, broadcast via television and radio in ten states, reach millions of people. Its renowned 250-voice choir has produced eight gospel albums with Reverend Evans as vocal soloist.

Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory

The lab was commissioned by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, under a bill signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson on November 21, 1967. On May 11, 1974, the laboratory was renamed in honor of 1938 Nobel Prize winner Enrico Fermi, one of the preeminent physicists of the atomic age. The lab's mission is to advance the understanding of the fundamental nature of matter and energy by providing leadership and resources for qualified researchers to conduct basic research at the frontiers of high energy physics and related disciplines.

Fisk University

Fisk University is the oldest university in Nashville, having been founded in 1866 as a liberal arts school committed to educating newly freed slaves. Fisk is home to the famous Jubilee Singers, who traveled around the country in 1871 to save the school from financial despair and continue to amaze audiences today. Fisk alumni have gone on to become world renowned artists, civic and business leaders, and many other walks of life.

Fitzgerald, Ella

The First Lady of Jazz, Ella Fitzgerald was born in 1918, and performed for the first time at the age of fifteen at the Apollo Theater. Fitzgerald, who had rudimentary musical education, quickly built a reputation among musicians and singers for her clarity of tone, her rhythmic perfection and a range that ran from somber lows to tinkling highs. By 1955 Fitzgerald was working with Cole Porter and Duke Ellington. During the course of her career, she was awarded ten Grammy Awards. After a struggle with diabetes and heart surgery, Fitzgerald died in 1996.

Foote Cone & Belding

Founded in 1873, the world's third oldest advertising agency. From 1898-1942 the "Father of Modern Advertising," Albert Lasker served as the company's chair. Today the company has offices around the globe, and boasts such clients as AT&T, Merck Pharmaceuticals and Tropicana.

Ford, Gerald

The 38th President of the United States. Ford was the first president to succeed a president who had resigned, following Nixon and the Watergate scandal. He served from 1974 to 1977, working hard to heal a nation that no longer fully trusted government.

Foxx, Redd

Born John Elroy Sanford, Foxx was a comedian who made his mark in the TV smash Sanford and Son (1972–77) after many years of odd jobs and short stretches on the night club circuit, including a kitchen job with Malcolm Little who would later be known as Malcolm X. Foxx hit it big in Las Vegas in 1968, but didn't make the celluloid jump until the 1970 film Cotton Comes to Harlem. The role brought him to the attention of producers Bud Yorkin and Norman Lear who decided to cast Foxx in Sanford and Son, his first major success. The show was followed by others, including The Redd Foxx Comedy Hour (1977–78) and the Redd Foxx Show (1986). He later co-edited The Redd Foxx Encyclopedia of Black Humor (1977). He passed away in 1991.

France

Originally a monarchy, France followed the American example of revolution. The French Revolution ultimately led to the execution of thousands of members of the ruling class. Later, Napoleon Bonaparte would proclaim himself emperor and thrust Europe in war. Although ultimately a victor in World Wars I and II, France suffered extensive losses in its empire, wealth, manpower, and rank as a dominant nation-state. Nevertheless, France today is one of the most modern countries in the world and is a leader among European nations. Since 1958, it has constructed a presidential democracy resistant to the instabilities experienced in earlier parliamentary democracies. In recent years, its reconciliation and cooperation with Germany have proved central to the economic integration of Europe, including the introduction of the euro in January 2002.

Fulbright Scholarship

The premiere program for international study offered by the United States, the Fulbright Scholarship was founded in 1946 and has sent hundreds of thousands of individuals around the globe, both to study and to teach.

Funk

An American musical genre inspired largely by African rhythms, funk first achieved popularity during the early 1970s. In that era, artists such as James Brown, the Ohio Players, and Parliament provided many listeners with their first exposure to funk's percussive beats and politically-conscious lyrics. Funk has also had a powerful influence on many of the traditional forms of African American music. For example, Miles Davis and Herbie Hancock experimented with the synthesis of jazz and funk in their later compositions.

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Gacy, John Wayne

Infamous Chicago-area serial killer who tortured and killed more than 30 young men during the 1970s.

Garvey, Marcus

Born in Jamaica in 1887, Marcus Garvey traveled extensively around the world, witnessing the plight of blacks everywhere. He founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association(UNIA) in 1914, and held the first convention in New York in 1920. That same year he also began publishing The Negro Word. The UNIA was a sucess, establishing offices in forty countries. After some failed business ventures, due largely to graft by those around him, Garvey was imprisoned and deported to Jamaica. He later returned to England, where he died in 1940. His followers came to be known as "Garveyites."

Gaye, Marvin

Famous singer born in Washington, D.C. in 1939. His 22-year career with Motown includes hits "Pride and Joy," duets with Mary Wells and Tammi Terrell, as well as best-selling albums exploring his social consciousness (What's Going On) and sexuality (Let's Get It On, Midnight Love). He is killed by his father following an argument in 1984.

George Foster Peabody Award

Prestigious broadcasting award first granted in 1940. The award is given in recognition of excellence in journalistic broadcasting, both in radio and television. The award is administered by the Henry W. Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Georgia. It is named after banker/philanthropist George Foster Peabody.

Georgia

Georgia, the fourth state to ratify the Constitution, later seceeded from the Union on January 29, 1861, to join the Confederacy. After the Civil War, Georgia was a hotbed of racial tensions, including race riots in 1907 and in the 1960s. Since then, Georgia's African American community has thrived, sending numerous individuals to both Federal and state office.

Germany

As Europe's largest economy and most populous nation, Germany remains a key member of the continent's economic, political, and defense organizations. European power struggles immersed the country in two devastating World Wars in the first half of the 20th century and left the country occupied by the victorious Allied powers of the US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945. With the advent of the Cold War, two German states were formed in 1949: the western Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern German Democratic Republic (GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself in key Western economic and security organizations, the EC, which became the EU, and NATO, while the Communist GDR was on the front line of the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the end of the Cold War allowed for German unification in 1990.

Ghana

A country in Western Africa, Ghana is situated on the Gulf of Guinea. Inhabited by a number of ancient kingdoms before its colonization by the British in the 1870s, the country has a population of 18 million people and over 60 ethnic groups. Nearly 47 percent of the people are classified as Akan, which includes the famous Ashanti people. The Mole-Dagbani tribes, which reside mainly on the savannah, represent 16 percent of the population. The Ewe and Ga-Dangbe lineages are the other major groups that share Ghana's diverse terrain. The nation became independent in 1957. Accra is the capital as well as the largest city.

Gillespie, Dizzy

John Birks "Dizzy" Gillespie was born in South Carolina in 1917 and struck out with his trumpet on a career in music in 1935. After working with Cab Calloway in 1939, Dizzy went on to play with such legends as Ella Fitzgerald, Coleman Hawkins and Duke Ellington. He had a strong interest in Afro-Cuban music, and would later perform experimental pieces with Thelonius Monk. He continued to play well into 1980s, continuing to develop and refine his style. He passed away in 1993.

Going to Lay Down My Sword and Shield

Famed black spiritual, one of the best-known American folk songs, it is most commonly known as "Down By the Riverside."

Golden Thirteen

Name given to the group of 13 men who became the first African American Naval officers on active duty. The men served with distinction during World War II, and went on to pursue various civilian careers.

Grammy Award

Presented by the Recording Academy, the Grammy Awards are presented annually to musicians representing various musical genres as the best in their field throughout the past year.

Great Depression

With the collapse of the stock market in October of 1929, the United States plunged into what is known as the "Great Depression." For over a decade, jobs were scarce, and the effects were felt by the African American community far worse than the population as a whole. America's entrance into World War II, in combination with policies from President Franklin Roosevelt's administration, helped to reverse the economic conditions.

Greece

Often recalled for the philosophical and mathematical developments spurred there in ancient times, modern Greece has had a more turbulent history. Greece achieved its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1829. During the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands and territories, most with Greek-speaking populations. Following the defeat of Communist rebels in 1949, Greece joined NATO in 1952. A military dictatorship, which in 1967 suspended many political liberties and forced the king to flee the country, lasted seven years. Democratic elections in 1974 and a referendum created a parliamentary republic and abolished the monarchy; Greece joined the European Community or EC in 1981 (which became the EU in 1992).

Gregory Hines

Tony Award-winning actor, dancer and singer born on February 14, 1946 began dancing with his older brother, Maurice Hines, Jr., and father, Maurice Hines, Sr., when he and his brother were young boys. Hines made is Broadway debut in 1954 in The Girl in Pink Tights. Hines went on to perform in plays such as Eubie! and Sophisticated Ladies. Hines won a Tony Award for his role in the revue of Jelly's Last Jam. Hines also appeared on television shows including Will & Grace and his own sitcom, The Gregory Hines Show. Hines' film credits include Tap, Waiting to Exhale and The Cotton Club.

Gullah

The Gullah are a distinctive group of Black Americans from South Carolina and Georgia in the southeastern United States. They live in small farming and fishing communities along the Atlantic coastal plain and on the chain of Sea Islands which runs parallel to the coast. Because of their geographical isolation and strong community life, the Gullah have been able to preserve more of their African cultural heritage than any other group of Black Americans. They speak a creole language similar to Sierra Leone Krio, use African names, tell African folktales, make African-style handicrafts such as baskets and carved walking sticks, and enjoy a rich cuisine based primarily on rice. Gullah refers to the people, their language and culture.

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Haiti

Once a Spanish, and later a French, colony, this Caribbean island was established as a resource for raw materials including cocoa, coffee, cotton and sugar cane which were cultivated by the labor of African slaves. Forced out by Haitian insurgents, Napoleon's forces fled in 1804 leaving Haiti to become the first independent Black nation. More recently, Haiti has experienced political instability, sporadic military governance and intense poverty.

Hampton Institute

Founded in 1868 and chartered as a normal and agricultural school in 1870, the Hampton Institute was one of the first black colleges and was also a pioneer in Native American education.

Hampton University

Co-educational historically black university located in southeastern Virginia. Today the school boasts six schools and an enrollment of 6,000. It is home to the oldest African American History museum in the United States.

Hampton, Lionel

A pioneer jazz vibraphonist, Lionel Hampton, was also a band leader, instrumentalist and ambassador for jazz. He began his career as a percussionist and drummer, but was introduced to the vibraphone in 1930 by Louis Armstrong. In 1936, he was invited to join Benny Goodman, who along with pianist Teddy Wilson and drummer Gene Krupa, formed the first racially integrated jazz group. Known primarily as a swing jazz performer, he also worked with a wide variety of musicians including Quincy Jones, Wes Montgomery, Fats Navarro and Clark Terry. Among his proteges were singers Betty Carter, Aretha Franklin, Dinah Washington and Joe Williams.

Harlem

One of the most storied and vibrant African American communities in the country, located in the northern part of Manhattan Island, New York City. Originally a rural area of New York, Harlem experienced an influx of wealth and rapid development in the 1870s, when three elevated train lines were added to service the neighborhood. During the late 19th century much of Harlem's housing stock was built to attract the city's well-to-do. When the real estate market crashed in 1904 (due to speculation and over-development), black real estate developer Philip Payton began converting the neighborhood into a haven for the city's black middle class. Soon after, during the 1920s Harlem was home to a thriving African American cultural scene, dubbed the Harlem Renaissance. Since then, Harlem has been a geographical locus for black culture, activism, arts and struggle.

Harlem Globetrotters

Founded in 1927 as Sapperstein's Harlem Globetrotters, this famous basketball team, known for being virtually unstopable on the court, will make history repeatedly over the decades, with some of the most talented players in basketball joining together. Among their highlights include a 1,270 game winning streak, broken in 2000, Pope John Paul II being named the honorary seventh Globetrotter at a ceremony in St. Peter's Square, and having played an unprecedented 20,000 games in during the existence of the team; no other team in any professional sport has ever accomplished this.

Harlem on My Mind

A 1979 photography exhibit of black photographers, shown in the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Harlem Renaissance

During the 1920s and 1930s in Harlem, New York, African American artists experienced an unprecedented outpouring of creativity in art, literature, music and dance. The Harlem Renaissance exalted the unique culture of African Americans and redefined African American expression, stimulating a new confidence in racial pride.

Harlem Yankees

A semi-professional black basketball team that barnstormed throughout the country during the 1940s.

Harris, Patricia Roberts

Born in 1924, she was the first African American woman to serve in a president's cabinet and the first to serve as secretary of two posts. After earning a law degree from George Washington University in 1960, Harris was admitted to practice before the United States Supreme Court. By 1969, she was the dean of the Howard University School of Law, and in 1977 President Jimmy Carter appointed her as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development. In 1979, she was named Secretary of Health and Human Services. She passed away in 1985.

Harvard University

The oldest and most prestigious academic institution in the nation. Founded in 1636 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Harvard University has trained and employed some of the finest thinkers in American history, producing over 40 Nobel laureates. Seven presidents have been Harvard graduates, including President George W. Bush who received an MBA from Harvard Business School in 1975. The university is named for its first benefactor, Minister John Harvard.

Helen Hayes

White theate, television, radio, and film actress who began acting at the age of five. Hayes was one of two women to have won a Tony, Emmy, Grammy and Oscar awards in her career. The Helen Hayes Awards were established in Washington, D.C. to celebrate the theatre productions and performances conducted in the nation's capital.

Holiday, Billie

Legendary singer Billie Holiday, or "Lady Day" as she came to be known, was born in Baltimore, Maryland. Listening to jazz in a "house of ill repute" where she scrubbed floors, Holiday became entranced with the sounds. She started out her career in small Harlem nightclubs before touring with Count Basie and Artie Shaw. After going solo, Holiday recorded more than 200 songs, and never received royalties for them. She passed away at the age of forty-four.

Horne, Lena

One of the most popular African American performers of the 1940s and 1950s, Lena Horne was born in Brooklyn. At sixteen, she was singing in the famous Cotton Club, and a few years later was on her way to Hollywood. By the 1940s, she was the highest paid black actor in the country, and had a string of hits. The 1950s found her labeled a Communist, which hurt her, but her career recovered as she became active in the Civil Rights Movement. She followed that with international tours and a show on Broadway. Horne is best known for her song, "Stormy Weather."

Houston, Charles

Born in Washington, D.C. in 1895, Houston attended Harvard University Law School and became a lecturer there. In 1935, he was recruited to form the legal department of the NAACP. He appointed future Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall to be his assistant in 1936, and together they filed numerous briefs over the years to challege segregation laws. Houston later served as dean of the Howard University Law School. He passed away in 1950.

Howard University

Based in Washington, D.C., Howard University was founded as a theological seminary to train African American clergymen in 1867. Guided by the motto "Veritas Et Utilitas" or "Truth And Service," the university was charged with the task of providing an education for newly emancipated slaves. A mainstay within the network of historic black universities, Howard University graduates have achieved notoriety in many facets of American life, including playwright Amiri Baraka and former Illinois State Attorney General Hon. Roland Burris.

Hughes, Langston

Langston Hughes was born in 1901 in Joplin, Missouri and went on to a career as a prolific writer and orator. A lover of jazz and the blues, Hughes seamlessly blended the musical genres with his poetry. He became one of the members of what came to be known as the Harlem Renaissance. Hughes wrote poetry, plays, musicals and a variety of other forms. He passed away in 1967.

Hull House

Social service organization founded by Jane Addams in 1889. Originally called a ‘Settlement House,' the Chicago-based organization offered services to underserved children and their families. Today it is one of the largest organizations of its kind in the nation.

Hurston, Zora Neale

Folklorist and author, Hurston participated in the Harlem Renaissance with other literary giants such as Langston Hughes. She was born in 1891 in Eatonville, Florida, where her mother died shortly after her birth. She left home for Baltimore and an education in 1917 before moving to New York. Her most famous work is Their Eyes Were Watching God, and she wrote several other works as well, including Mules and Men and Dust Tracks on a Road. She died in poverty in 1960.

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Illinois

The twenty-first state admitted to the Union, Illinois became a state on December 3, 1818. In 1865, it became the first state to ratify the 13th Amendment abolishing slavery, and in 1973 it becomes the first state to recognize a holiday for Martin Luther King, Jr.

Illinois House of Representatives

The lower house of the Illinois State General Assembly, it convened for the first time in 1909. The 118-member body is responsible for "enacting, amending, or repealing laws, passing resolutions, adopting appropriation bills and conducting inquiries on proposed legislation." Members are elected every two years to two-year terms.

Independence Ceremony

Beginning in the 1950s, many African nations reclaimed their sovereignty from colonial forces. The first of these nations was Ghana, which gained independence from Great Britian in March 1957 due to the efforts of Kwame Nkrumah and the Convention People's Party (CPP). Bolstered by Ghana's victory, other African nations fought for and won independence, including Kenya (1963), Angola (1976), and Namibia (1988).

India

The Indus Valley civilization, one of the oldest in the world, goes back at least 5,000 years. Aryan tribes from the northwest invaded about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the earlier inhabitants created the classical Indian culture. Arab incursions starting in the 8th century and Turkish in 12th were followed by European traders, beginning in the late 15th century. By the 19th century, Britain had assumed political control of virtually all Indian lands. Nonviolent resistance to British colonialism under Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru led to independence in 1947. The subcontinent was divided into the secular state of India and the smaller Muslim state of Pakistan. A third war between the two countries in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate nation of Bangladesh.

Indiana

The nineteenth state to join the Union, Indiana was accepted into the United States in 1816. Indiana sided with the Union during the Civil War. The capital, Indianapolis, is a bustling metropolis, and Gary, Indiana, near Chicago, is home to many industries and a large African American community.

Indianapolis Recorder

Black newspaper founded in 1899. In 1990, the paper was purchased by businessman William Mays.

Indonesia

Indonesia is the world's largest archipelago, consisting of more than 17,000 islands, 6,000 of which are inhabited. It achieved independence from the Netherlands in 1949.

Institute of Positive Education/New Concept School

Founded on Chicago's South Side in 1969 by poet and publisher Haki Madhubuti and his wife Safisha, the IPE/NC School offers an innovative African and African American-based curriculum.

Iowa

The 29th state to join the Union, Iowa entered the United States in 1846. Known as the "Corn State," Iowa is covered with vast farmlands.

Iran

Nestled between Asia and the Middle East, Iran was known as Persia until 1935. The region has been home to numerous civilizations over the centuries. Iran became an Islamic republic in 1979 after the ruling shah was forced into exile.

Iraq

Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied by Britain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared a League of Nations mandate under the administration of the United Kingdom. In stages over the next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in 1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a series of military strongmen have ruled the country since then, the latest being Saddam Hussein. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive and costly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seized Kuwait, but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the Gulf War of January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation, the UN Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of mass destruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verification inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC resolutions over a period of 12 years resulted in the US-led invasion of Iraq in March 2003 and the ouster of the Saddam Hussein regime.

Israel

Following World War II, the British withdrew from their mandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab and Jewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently, the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without ending the deep tensions between the two sides. In April of 1982, Israel withdrew from the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. Outstanding territorial and other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition, in 2000, Israel withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it had occupied since 1982. In keeping with the framework established at the Madrid Conference in October 1991, bilateral negotiations were conducted between Israel and Palestinian representatives (from the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip) and Syria to achieve a permanent settlement. But progress toward a permanent status agreement has been undermined by the outbreak of Palestinian-Israeli violence since September 2000.

Italy

Recognizable on maps by its boot-like appearance, Italy sits within the southern region of Europe and is surrounded by four seas and a number of Mediterranean islands including Sicily, Sardinia, Elba and Capri . Italy is known for being the seat of the Roman Empire and as a center of European arts and culture during the Renaissance.

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Jackson Five

Pop music group comprised of five brothers. Originally from Gary, Indiana, the family group signed to Barry Gordy's Motown record label and achieved success in the 1970s with hits like "ABC" and "I Want You Back." The lead singer, Michael, and his sister, Janet, went on to pop stardom, while other members of the family had less successful adult careers. The group was discovered by Oscar Brown Jr.

Jackson, Mahalia

Known as "The Queen of Gospel Music," Mahalia Jackson was born in New Orleans in 1912 and moved to Chicago at an early age. She absorbed the sounds of blues singers Ma Rainey and Bessie Smith, but it was the church to whom she pledged her allegiance. She began singing gospel in the 1920s at Chicago's Greater Salem Baptist Church and performing with Prince Johnson Gospel Singers. By the late 1930s she had begun recording as a solo artist, and in the early '40s she toured with the great Thomas Dorsey. As illustrated by "Move On Up a Little Higher," her charismatic performing style influenced the young Aretha Franklin among many others. Jackson died of heart failure in 1972 at age 59.

Jackson, Reverend Jesse

Ordained Baptist minister, Rev. Jesse Louis Jackson was born October 8, 1941. His work in civil rights began early in college when, as a campus leader at the Agricultural and Technical College of North Carolina in Greensboro, he spearheaded protests that forced the integration of the city's restaurants and theaters. Following the assassination of his mentor Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Jackson became a national figure by founding Operation PUSH (0">People United To Save Humanity), an organization working to improve the lives of African Americans. In the 1980s Jackson continued to raise awareness of important political and social issues with projects such as the National Rainbow Coalition (1986) and during his campaigns for the Democratic Presidential nomination (1984 / 1988). He has also received international acclaim for his role in the release of hostages being held in Iraq and Bosnia.

Jamaica

Independent Caribbean island nation, it is one of the largest islands in the Caribbean. Conquered by the British in 1655, it remained a British colony, until 1962 when it achieved independence. The modern-day population of Jamaica is comprised mainly of the descendants of the African slaves who were forcibly brought to the island to work the fields. It is presently a parliamentary democracy. The official language is English but the local ‘patois' is spoken more commonly. Jamaica is the birthplace of Reggae music, one of the most important musical genres of the century, and also one of the most popular forms of music the world over.

Japan

While retaining its time-honored culture, Japan rapidly absorbed Western technology during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. After its defeat in World War II, Japan recovered to become an economic power and a staunch ally of the US. While the emperor retains his throne as a symbol of national unity, actual power rests in networks of powerful politicians, bureaucrats, and business executives. The economy experienced a major slowdown starting in the 1990s following three decades of unprecedented growth.

Jazz

A form of music developed by African Americans during the early years of the twentieth century, jazz is known as America's classical music. A revolutionary departure from previous canons of musical arrangement and performance, the enigmatic compositions of jazz are characterized by improvisation, complex rhythms, and harmonic exploration. The genre has evolved into a variety of complex styles, including the trumpet-heavy New Orleans style, mainstream orchestrations of Big Band/Swing, and the unpredictability of Free Jazz. Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Ella Fitzgerald, and Miles Davis have been some of the most influential figures in jazz. It continues to maintain a strong influence on more contemporary types of music, from "pop" and rock 'n' roll to ‘hip hop' and ‘rhythm and blues.'

Jessye, Eva

Born in 1895, Eva Jessye gained prominence as the foremost African American choral conductor of her era. Following studies at Western University in Kansas City, Kansas and at Langston University in Oklahoma, Eva Jessye became a teacher in the segregated Oklahoma school system. In 1922, she moved to New York where she worked as a journalist and amateur choir conductor for several gospel groups. Eva Jessye eventually attracted the attention of Broadway producers, and she became the original conductor for Gershwin's Porgy and Bess and Vidor's Hallelujah. Later, during the Civil Rights Movement, the Eva Jessye Choir was named the official choir for Dr. Martin Luther King's 1963 march. Eva Jessye died in 1992.

Jim Crow

Named for an antebellum minstrel show character, Jim Crow Laws were passed in the U.S. by Southern state legislatures during the late 19th century. Statues based upon the principal of "separate but equal" created a legal caste system supporting white supremacist ideology. African Americans were subjected to poll taxes, literacy tests, segregated public facilities and other devices designed to disenfranchise the population. The structure of legal segregation was finally dismanteled by civil rights legislation enacted during the 1960s.

Johnson Publishing Company

The world's largest African American-owned publishing company. John H. Johnson founded the company in 1942 with a publication called Negro Digest. Today it publishes both Ebony and Jet, two of the oldest and most popular African American magazines in the nation. Johnson Publishing Company is based in Chicago.

Johnson, James Weldon

Lawyer, lyricist, and social activist, James Weldon Johnson was born in Jacksonville, Florida in 1871. After graduating from Atlanta University, he returned to Jacksonville and worked as a principal in Stanton Elementary School. Johnson collaborated as a lyricist with his brother on some 200 songs, including "Lift Every Voice and Sing," long considered to be the African American national anthem. Under Theodore Roosevelt's administration, Johnson was appointed U.S. Ambassador to Venezuela (1906), Nicaragua (1909) and Azores (1912). Upon his return to the U.S., Johnson joined the NAACP and served in numerous capacities with the organization for almost 15 years. He was one of the leading contributors to Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s and 1930s, publishing anthologies of African American poetry as well as his own works. Johnson also taught at Fisk University and New York University. He died in 1938.

Johnson, Lyndon B.

The 36th President of the United States. In 1963, he ascended to the Presidency from the Vice Presidency following the assassination of John F. Kennedy. Johnson's legacy in domestic affairs stands as one of the most influential of the century. After his re-election in 1964, Johnson engineered a package of legislation known as "Great Society" programs, which included Head Start, Civil Rights legislation, Affirmative Action, and the ‘War on Poverty.' In foreign affairs, Johnson's record is decidedly more controversial. His administration escalated U.S. involvement in Vietnam resulting in civil unrest and widespread protest at home. Facing harsh criticism from both the left and right, Johnson chose not to seek re-election in 1968. He died in 1973 at home, on his Texas ranch.

Jones, Quincy

Black musician, songwriter, and entertainment mogul. In his distinguished career, Quincy Jones has produced studio albums, television shows, and founded a magazine. Jones has worked with nearly every major American recording artist of the last half-century including Frank Sinatra, Miles Davis, and Ray Charles. He has been the recipient of numerous honors and awards.

Joyner, Tom

Host of "The Tom Joyner Morning Show," the nationally syndicated morning radio broadcast on ABC. The show fuses news, sports, music and political activism. Tom Joyner has won four Billboard Magazine Awards and has been inducted into the Radio Hall of Fame.